Journal of Tikrit University for Humanities A Sociolinguistic Study of Naming in American English

Nothing on this earth exists without a name. Naming is a universal human activity. The first and most important right for human being is definitely the name that should carry an esthetical characteristic and have an acceptable meaning in society. So everyone should have a good name. This study presents a sociolinguistic analysis of naming and names in American English. It tackles the problem that personal names and naming practices are a human universal, but systems of naming vary across cultures. It aims at investigating the practice of naming and sources or categories of names used in American English society. To carry out the aims and verify the


Introduction
Naming is an essential practice, which people use to identify what surrounds them as a way of communication around the world. This practice differs according to cultural beliefs. Each culture has its own rules and habits in naming their newborns. This study tries to detect naming newborns and names used in American English society in an attempt to explicate naming phenomenon of the language under investigation.
The sources of naming vary; some societies prefer religious names, others prefer popular names when persons are designated or called. The name itself is either a word or a combination of words; compound words are used in naming newborns. Thus, this study also tries to verify from what sources people derive their names and which ones are more influential on them?

Definitions
The word name comes from the old English nama; cognates with old German namo and the Greek word onoma (Danesi, 2004:118). Names as labels for people, place, etc. (Saeed, 2009:27), while naming is the process of giving that name.
Almighty Allah created all the names. He taught Adam all of them at the beginning of creation. Besides, this is the first source of speech. Thus, The Almighty Creator threw all the names into the heart of Adam, and the creatures had known them through communication (Ash-Shaarawi, 1996:8). Although some commentators disagree upon the interpretation of the word ʽnamesʼ mentioned in the Glorious Qur'an that it may belong to proper names of humans or to objects, many people agree that the origin of all the knowledge is Almighty Allah (Azzam, 2010:34). The ability of Adam to know and identify the name of all things positioned him to have dominance over other creatures. Saeed (2009:28) states that there are two theories of names. He terms the important one as the description theory, which provides a name as a label or shorthand of knowledge about the referent. Another is the causal theory which is based on the idea that names are socially inherited or borrowed. At some points, a name is given to a person perhaps in a formal ceremony. However, linguists and scholars try in vain to establish the origins of names, just as they would in vain open a discussion about the creation of language. Tesone (2011:2) thinks that naming and words are indissolubly connected.

Nickname
It comes from "an eke-name" which means "an also name". It is an epithet describing the characteristics of the bearer that applies to an individual in place of (or as well as) his/her personal name (Bowers, 2004:7). The nick or ascribed names are selected by or applied to individuals based on personality, physical appearance, profession, achievements or mannerisms. The implication is that such names are not given at birth, but until much later in life. They follow no family condition consideration, in contrast to first names. Although it is stylish, it is not obligatory or required for an individual to have a nickname all his life (Ogunwale,2012:26).

Structure of Names
English words can be classified on the basis of the combinations and types of morphemes of which they are composed. A classification adopts three main classes: simple, compound, and complex words (Stageberg, 1981:116). Proper names as words are also classified with the same classes such as; John and Hepburne-Scott (Quirk and Greenbaum,1973:60).

Gender and Names
Names denote crucial information about gender, that state whether the named person is a male or female, because each group has its own names. The majority of languages vary in the way they reflect gender. In the English culture, some female names are derivatives of male names, as in the examples: Victor -Victoria, Henry -Henrietta (Lederer,1991:59). Also, female Christian names follow a similar pattern as the males, like Michaelle and Georgette (Hawana, 1977:16). Americans have male, female, and neutral names. Most common names such as: John, Mary, Richard, and Elizabeth are single-gender names in America and English-speaking world in general. Frequently, {-ah} or {-ee} suffix at the end of a name signifies a female name, such as Sarah and Destinee, but not universally. Ad-Duri and Salih (2006:57) add that there are names that are mutually used for both males and females. Gender-neutral names, the given names that can be used by males and females alike, are common in America. In classifying names into males and females, there are many neutral names that can be used by persons regardless of their gender, such as: Alex, Kalin, and Robin.
2. Practice of Names The practice of naming varies according to cultural norms. Name giving practices do not follow a uniform path, nor do they remain fixed over time. This practice depends on culture, ceremony, omen, taboo, and fashion of independent societies.

2.1Culture
Culture is basically everything that embraces people mode of life. Naming a newborn may be a special procedure for every family in most cultures. In English contemporary societies, names of children are usually chosen from a selection of existing names belonging to the linguistic and cultural collection of which the parents are part. In many instances, the choice is intended to the perpetuate memory of forebears or cultural heroes or to honour members of the family (Blumenthal, 2009:125). A few hundred names are chosen by vast number of people every year, these are the well-established and safe names, with which it is substantially impossible to go wrong. Among the most popular male names are Adam, Andrew, David, James, John, Matthew, Michael, Taylor,  A newborn"s name may be chosen or named by different people (e.g., parents, one of the family members, paternal or maternal family members, and even by a community member) around the baby and may reflect those individuals" values and tastes. However, parents remain the main responsible ones for naming their baby if s/he is not given a name and each suggested name cannot be announced without their approval. So, in American culture, various individuals have had the right to name babies. In some circles, the father chooses a name for the first baby, while the mother chooses a name for the second, and they continue to alternate. In other communities, it is the opposite; the mother chooses the first name, the father chooses the second, and so on. Naming practices and names are closely related to cultural values and beliefs. Religion, which is the main element in every culture, constitutes a big group of names in the current data. These names that are derived from the Old Testament (Jacob, Joseph, Sarah, Rebecca) and New Testament (John, Zachary, Elizabeth, Mary), and names of other saints, religious figures, and names contain expressions that refer to religion such as; Theodore (Divine gift) and Tobias (God is good). These religious names are regarded as abstract ones, including acts and blessings. However, religious names will be mentioned later in details in the religious source. Some parents pass on to their newborns their own names, names of some close relatives, admired friends, or others. Boys are likely to be given names after relatives more than girls.
American people are influenced by literature such as books of names, television, and other social media in bestowed names. Nevertheless, these are not the predominant factors when naming a baby. Some given names, like any other cultural traits, come and go in the society. Most of them have a popularity peak and then vanish. Compared to other relevant traits, names appear to be very appropriate for studying cultural changes, as a name"s success depends primarily on the influence surrounding culture upon the newborn"s parents.
There are rules that restrict what names can be given, it depends on where people live as they have restrictions vary according to States. As in Alabama; only the English alphabet is allowed, while symbols and numbers are not, hyphens and apostrophes are permissible. Generally, a naming law limits the names that parents may legally give to their children, usually to protect the child from an inappropriate or offensive name being given. Some States in America have such rules, with most regulating the meaning of the name, while few only regulate the scripts in which it is written. Notwithstanding, naming is still somehow a free choice in American society and as a result, there are numerous various names that can be used.
In this vein, practices of naming are part of cultural practices reflecting values and beliefs in a community. These cultures of names, while common in some states, is not locally uniform. Depending on certain cultures and/or ceremonies, naming conventions can and will vary. However, a thorough analysis of baby names shows a complicated process of naming and semantic motivation influenced by sociocultural norms.

Ceremony
A naming ceremony is the event at which an individual is given a name or names. The most common ceremony for the newborn is naming. There are no rules of the time or when to hold the ceremony. It can happen very soon after the baby"s birth, or it can happen later in their life.
A naming ceremony is exceedingly sacred. In Christianity, naming a baby is usually done through the Baptism ceremony, especially among Catholics. Baptism is a Christian rite of admission and adoption, almost invariably with the use of water. It may be performed by sprinkling or pouring water on the head, or by immersing in water either completely or partially. They thought that John the Baptist baptised Jesus. Baptism is considered a sacrament in most churches, and as an ordinance in others. Baptism is also called Christening. In other cases, the rite of Baptism ideally takes place on Sunday, in the presence of church members, relatives and friends. It begins with the parents presenting the child for Baptism. The priest meets them at the door of the church and asks them "What name do you give your child?" to which they respond with the name of the child to identify the child in order to complete the rites of Baptism.
Naming ceremonies are usually not conducted in a church and have the choice of including religious content or not, nor are they officiated by a priest or a church man. They can also be held everywhere so families have the freedom to decide where they would like to celebrate.
According to some priests, naming ceremony in church is not a substitution for baptism, but a means for American and African-American parents and their families to welcome and celebrate the newborn into their homes, communities, and world.
According to some Jewish customs and ceremonies, a baby boy is named at his circumcision, usually at eight days old. If this event is delayed, some authorities maintain that the name should be given when the father is called to the Torah. However, the more common ceremony is that parents wait until the circumcision is performed. If the child is a firstborn and the redemption of the firstborn ceremony is being held, some authorities say that a baby boy should be named at that ceremony. Another ceremony is that if the baby is ill, and people would like to pray for the baby using his name, he should be given a name earlier.
While in the case of a baby girl; she is named at a first Torah reading following her birth. It is the Jewish custom to name a baby girl at the first possible Torah reading (Torah readings take place on Saturdays as well as Mondays and Thursdays, and other special days on the Jewish calendar). Some people have the custom of waiting until Saturday to name the baby, when it can be done in the presence of the more community. The naming is usually accompanied by a feast to mark the entry of the spirit into the body at the time.
Generally, naming a baby may occur without any ceremonies, only choosing a name, and it may take place immediately after birth, a few days, or may be agreed upon during pregnancy. However, as with cultural practices of naming, ceremonies could not be confined. Perhaps there are ceremonies that scholars and researchers have not recognized yet. In some American slave communities, people do not name their children until one month after birth. Also, the New Englanders delay naming and the related attribution of personhood for a long time after birth, referring to their infants as ʽthe babyʼ, ʽitʼ, or ʽthe little strangerʼ until "little stranger became familiar".

Omen
Omen is a phenomenon, an event or happening that denotes destiny and its occurrence makes someone have a clear message about what is lying in the unseen for that person (Dwivedi, 2000:9). People give their children optimistic names hoping that they will be the same as their names in the future. There are many names refer to hopeful occupations as their children will be princes, princess, and leaders. Some Jewish do not name their children after dead person because there was a fear that the soul of a person would follow his or her name, which meant death for the living and disruption of the heavenly rest of the dead. While Christians name their children after the living without causing them any harm, Jews avoid doing so.
Although omen is a phenomenon, it is not very prevalent in the United States; there are no explicit works by sociologists to diagnose the names that carry good or evil signs for its bearer. However, people believe that the names denote beauty, purity, and/or a good occupation will carry a good future for the bearer.

‫المجلد‬ ‫االنسانية‬ ‫للعلوم‬ ‫تكريت‬ ‫جامعة‬ ‫مجلة‬
Naming taboo is a religious or cultural taboo against naming, speaking, or writing some given names. There are some names that are not taboo but are forbidden, dislikable, or not used by American society. However, there are no taboo or forbidden names in the data. This explains that American society is mostly away from the taboo or forbidden names.

Unique Names
Unique baby names in the recent years have become a fashion more than a custom. Families are, now more than ever, looking for more unique names. According to baby survey that made by BabyNames.com of over 400,000 parents, most answered preferring to avoid or skip the top 10 baby names. Some parents do not want their baby to be "one of five Aidans in his class", that they want to stay away from the frequent names.
People are coming up with new and various ways to give unique names, including unique spellings of more common names, like the unique male name Zakaria which is derived from the old version Zachary, and the female name Nathaly which is derived from the old version Natalie.
Also there are some new names that are just variants of a well-forgotten old one. Despite of the fact that the popularity of names is constantly changing, certain patterns can be identified in this process. Traditionally people prefer female names ending in {-a} and {-ah}, such as; Anna, Emma, Hannah, Mia, Sara and Sarah, as well as names beginning with a hard {K-}, such as; Kylie, Caitlin, and Courtney. According to scholarsʼ observations, the popularity of female names ending in {-n} has rapidly increased, such as; Aiden, Hayden, Caden, and Jaden, and for males, names beginning with {J-}, such as; Joshua, Joseph, and Justin are preferred.
Unique names are prevalent in areas where mixing with other cultures is available. Moreover, regions in the United States that have been settled by Europeans use less frequently popular names. Unique itself, is a unique neutral baby name that is of American origin which means "unlike others".
English websites and recent sources offer unique and new names. There is no similarity between them and names in the data. Unique male names, such as; Fielder, Rafferty, and Osgood, while female names are Ailsa, Anouk, and Merrin.
In a very small degree, fashion names depend on the things or events taking place in the world. In industrialized countries, Native American names that are drawn 29 from nature or based on nature gradually fell out of favour. Names like Rose, Fern, or Pearl are considered old fashioned and unsuitable for the workplace.
It may mark an increasing cultural shift towards individualism, as American culture has become more individualistic, parents have preferred giving names to children that make them distinctive and that means using more unique names and less popular names.
This concludes that, in English language practice of naming and especially in adopting new names, the main emphasis lies on the phonetic, graphic, in other words, on the external shape of the name. However, it could be said that unusual and unique names are related to popular American culture.

Sources and Categories of Names
Certainly, most people want to choose a name that is associated with good qualities and a successful and happy life. It should be not old-fashioned or bizarre. Besides, it should not be too boring or obvious either. However, the right choice is more difficult. Most parents choose names from the prevalent ones in order to be in the safe side. There are many other sources from which American personal names may be derived. The data of names of students are classified into the following sources and categories:

Religious Names
The prevalent religions in the United States of America are Christianity and Judaism, and other religions. As it has been noticed in the data, some names are related to the Bible. Also there are some names related to Islam and other religions.
The religious names, according to the American society, are derived from different sources. The male names of the Old Testament are "Adam" (the first man created by God), "Jared" (descendant of Adam), "Noah" (the builder of the Ark that survived him, his family, and animals of each species from the Great Flood.), "Javon" (Noah"s grandson), "Abraham" (the first patriarchs" Jewish), "Isaac" (borne by Abraham"s son), "Jacob" (the son of Isaac and Rebecca. He was the father of twelve sons, who gave their names to the twelve tribes of Israel, and above all, he was the most important patriarch in the Book of Genesis.), "Joseph" (borne by Jacob"s favourite son), "Asher" (Jacob"s son), "Benjamin" (Jacob"s twelfth and youngest son), "Aaron" (name of Moses"s brother, who was appointed by God to be Moses"s spokesman and became the first high priest of the Israelites.), "Joshua" (Moses"s companion and successor), "David" (the greatest of the Israelite kings), "Caleb" is one of the only two persons who set out from Egypt with Moses to live long enough to reach the Promised Land, this name is related to a Hebrew word for "dog", "Samuel" (prophet) two books of the Old Testament are named after him, "Elijah" (a Hebrew prophet) as mentioned in the two Books of Kings, "Daniel" (borne by a Hebrew prophet whose story is told in the Book of Daniel), "Jonathan" (name of several characters in the Bible), "Isiah" (one of the four major prophets of the Old Testament), and "Emmanuel" (foretold name of the Messiah in the Old Testament), whereas "Sarah" (Abraham"s wife), "Rebecca" (wife of Isaac and mother of Jacob), "Leah" (Jacob"s first wife and seven of his children"s mother), "Rachel" (Jacob"s second wife and Leah"s sister), "Miriam" (Moses"s elder sister), "Hannah" (mother of Samuel), and "Ruth" (the central character in the Book of Ruth in the Old Testament) are female names. The feminine forms of some religious male names are "Micaela" and "Danielle" are female names. Usually, female religious names are regarded mothers, wives, or other relatives of Prophets, saints, and other religious figures.
On the other hand, the male names of the New Testament and its account of the life of Jesus include "Elliott" (prophet) is the version of the New Testament that derives from Elijah of the Old Testament, "James" (the evangelist, author of the second gospel in the New Testament), "Jamison" (son of James), "Jimmy" (short form of James), "Thomas" (one of twelve apostles of Christ of the New Testament), "John" (Baptist) is also a name of several characters in the Old Testament, although this spelling is used in the Authorized Version of the New Testament, "Zachary" (father of John), "Jeremy" (version of the New Testament from Jeremiah; a great prophet of Hebrew), "Matthew" (author of the first gospel in the New Testament), "Andrew" (first disciple to be called by Jesus) and also the warrior in the New Testament, "Philip" (one of Christ"s apostles) also called Philip Evangelist, "Peter" (the bestknown of all Christ"s apostles), and "Timothy" (saint). Names like "Elizabeth" (mother of John), "Mary" (Virgin Mary) which is the New Testament form of "Miriam" mother of Jesus the Christ, and "Lois" (the grandmother of Timothy) are female names.
Thus, the names derived from the Old and New Testaments include the religious figures, histories, legends, laws and prophecies of the ancient Hebrew and the Bible.
Some Americans of Indian origin are using names that refer to their religion and the names of their gods, e.g., the male name "Venkatesh" (name of god Vishnu).

‫المجلد‬ ‫االنسانية‬ ‫للعلوم‬ ‫تكريت‬ ‫جامعة‬ ‫مجلة‬
Some biblical names are rarely repeated. They were uniquely created to express parental sentiments at the time of birth, they are represented by the male name "Zane" (gift from God), "Theodore" (Divine gift), "Tobias" and "Shawn" (God is good). Islam influenced American Muslims to use names from Arabic language, which is likely, i.e., Arabic to be used for the purposes of religion like the male names "Muqit" and "Ali", while the female names are like "Khadija", "Fatima", and "Takia". There are names that refer to religions like "Christopher" (Christ-bearer), "Kristian" (Christian), and "Malcolm" (follower of Columba) for males. The Anglicized forms of religious names which were used in other foreign languages and transferred to American English become common names used by American society as centuries passed by. These names are for males like "Evan" (form of John) used by several countries, "Ian" (Scottish version of John) and "Jack" (form of John). Names of archangels also have a share in the common used names for males such as "Gabriel" (archangel) appeared to Daniel in the Old Testament, to Zachary in the New Testament, and, most famously, to "Mary" to announce the impending birth of Christ, "Raphael" (archangel), and "Michael" (borne by an archangel in the Bible) though its meaning is (who is like God?) this is a rhetorical question which implies that nobody is like God.
Finally, names that carry negative characteristics such as "Brennen" (a sorrowful man), "Kelan" (slender) are male names, and female names are "Cheyenne" and "Shyann" (unintelligible speaker or speaking incoherently), "Kaylyn" (slender), "Mallory" (unlucky or unhappy), and "Thy" (untamed). Other characteristics or traits that are not considered from the foregoing carry normal traits or which only refer to the gender of the newborn are represented by female names like "Barbara" (stranger), "Colleen" (girl), and "Donna"(lady).
The above names are some of the baby names that are inspired by personal traits or qualities which parents hope their kids to have in future. A name is the image of a person, giving children names based on these qualities can impress people who will come in contact with them in the future.
Colours are harmonious with nature. People use names that refer to their skinnednature, black and white, and other beautiful colours. Male names such as, "Blake" and "Blakeley" (black), "Neel" and "Vinil" (blue), and "Roja" (red) are good examples.
Names of sense and feeling that state life and nature of human beings such as "Destin" and its feminine form "Destinee" (fate) or one"s destiny and "Zoe" (life) are of this kind.
Animals are thought to be spirit guides in some cultures, naming a newborn after a powerful creature is considered to be sacred for some. However, names with animal meanings include both those that announce themselves clearly such as Wolf and Fox, and those whose animal meaning is more hidden, such as, "Brock" (badger), "Darby" (deer farm), "Gavin" and "Marlon" (a little white falcon), "Kobi" (turtle), "Leonard" (strength of lion), "Lowell" (little wolf), "Ralph" (wolf counsel), "Randall" and "Randolph" (the wolf shield), and "Taurus" (bull) are male names, whereas female names are like "Felina" (cat-like), "Jael" (a mountain goat), "Raven" (black bird), and "Tabatha" (gazelle).

Occupation and Achievement Names
Most occupation and achievement names start as surnames that describe a person"s job. These days, occupation and achievement names are not quite functional; nonetheless, many are popular (especially for boys).
Generally, occupation male names are more than that of females. The reason is due to the nature of life that men work more in jobs than women do. Women are usually homemakers. These names show that the ruling and owning are the most occupations favoured by American society.

Time and Place Names
Some of time expressions inspire people to choose names from, due to their characteristics of beauty as they evoke the feelings of the season, or they are used because their coincidence with the birth. However, names refer to time in the data, such as the male names "Karthik" (a month in Hindu calendar) and "Wynter" (winter). Female names are like "April" represents the opening of flowers and buds in spring, "Autumn" is the fall season, "Dawn" is time of sunrise, and "Summer" because of its pleasant associations.

Honourific Names
In many examples, the choices of names are intended to perpetuate the memory of forebears or to honour known figures, members of the family, or cultural heroes as in literary works. Some names are used in an honour of actors and actresses and legendary characters. The honourific male names, or their first prevalence were used honourifically, that are spread in the American society after publicly figures or others are "Alexander" though its meaning is (a defender of mankind) it was borne by several characters such as the saints in the New Testament and some early Christian saints. However, it is derived largely from the fame of Alexander the Great, King of Macedon (356 BC), around whom many popular legends grew up in late antiquity, much of which came to be embodied in the Medieval-Alexander Romances". It also became a popular Hebrew name after Alexander the Great"s benign rule of Palestine. "Alec" is a short form of Alexander. "Anthony" is of (an ancient Roman family). "Arthur" was borne by heroes such as the British King Arthur of the 5th or 6th century and a large body of legends grew up around him in literature. "Bill" the nickname King Billy for William of Orange may have influenced English usage. "Bruce" (an influential Norman family) was borne by Jean Cauvin (1509-64) a theologian from France who was one of the leaders of the Protestant Reformation, he is known as John Calvin in English, it has been used as a given name in his honour since the 19th century. "Clinton" is used in honour of the Clinton family. "Cornelius" is of an old Roman family name that possibly derives from the Latin word meaning "horn". "Dominic" is used mainly by Catholics in honour of St Dominic (1170-1221) founder of the Dominican order of monks. "Grant" is sometimes bestowed in honour of the Civil War general and 18th president. "Hamilton" is apparently begun in America in honour of Alexander